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ON 

HISTORY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY, 

AS NECESSARY BRANCHES 

OF SUPERIOR EDUCATION 

IN FREE STATES. 



■N, 



A N 

NAUGURAL ADDRESS, 

DELIVERED 

IN SOUTH CAROLINA COLLEGE, 

BEFORE 

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR AND THE 
LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE, 

ON COMMENCEMENT DAY THE 7th OF DECEMBER, 1835. 

BY FRANCIS LIEBER, LL. D. 

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 



PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE HONORABLE 

THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES, 



COLUMBIA, S. C. 

PRINTED BY A. S. JOHNSTOX. 
1836. 



NOTICE, 

The new Professors of South Carolina College were invited, on their 
election, by the Board of Trustees, to deliver inaugural addresses before the 
Legislature of the State, at its next session. It is thus that the following 
pages are addressed to the Legislature and not to the Board of Trustees, as 
will appear from several passages. 



In the Board of Trustees of the South Carolina CoUege, at its sitting of Dec. 
15th. 1835, the following resolution was proposed and adopted : 

"Resolved, That the Professors be requested to furnish copies of their 
addresses, for publication; and that they be published, and the expense paid 
out of the College Treasury." 

A true extract from the journal of the Board. 

E. W. JOHNSTON, 

Secretary of the Trustees. 



Gentlemen, 

When the city of Leyden, in common with all the Low Coun- 
tries, had fought through the bloodiest, and, perhaps, the noblest 
struggle for liberty on record, the great and good William of 
Orange offered her immunity from taxes, that she might recover 
from her bitter sufferings, and be rewarded for the important 
services which she had rendered to the sacred cause. Ley- 
den, however, declined the offer, and asked for nothing but the 
privilege of erecting a university within her walls, as the best 
reward for more than human endurance and perseverance. 

This simple fact is a precious gem to the student of 
history ; for if the protection of the arts and sciences reflect 
great honor upon a monarch, though it be for vanity's sake, 
the fostering care with which communities or republics watch 
over the cultivation of knowledge and the other ennobling 
pursuits of man, sheds a still greater lustre upon themselves. 
Nowhere, in the whole range of history, does man appear in 
a more dignified character, than when a republic founds a 
new seminary of learning, or extends her liberal aid toward 
the support of a scientific institution, in whose prosperity she 
takes a just and fruitful pride. It is by the exertion of the 
people themselves, by the fruits of their own labor, by the 
free grant of their own means, that these schools for the cul. 
tivation of knowledge and the education of their sons are 
erected. Nothing but their fullest conviction of the happy, 
purifying and invigorating effect, which the diffusion of sci- 
ences and the training of the youthful mind exercise upon so- 
ciety, can induce them to establish or protect these nurseries 
of civilization. It is a voluntary tribute brought by a whole 
community to the superiority of letters and science©, to the 
great, universal cause of learning. 



6 

This consideration, gentlemen, renders the present moment 
one of pleasure indeed, but also of great solemnity to me. I 
address through you, fellow citizens, our State, which has 
not only founded the institution, to assist in the guidance of 
which you have called me ; but it seems also that South 
Carolina, after an arduous and great struggle, directs her first 
attention to her College. Parties lately so strenuously op- 
posed to each other, unite in the noble undertaking of using 
that impulse, which a contest for principle ever gives to a civil 
community, for the benefit of the institution, where the State 
expects her youth to be instructed, trained and educated in 
all the sciences and duties, which shall make them able to fill 
the most important stations in society and the highest places 
our country has to offer to talent and virtue. Thus has been 
verified our charter, which declares that one of the main 
objects for establishing ihe College has been, " to promote har- 
mony within the whole community." You have reorganized 
this College, and it is natural that our whole State look with 
anxious expectation upon her highest school. These circum- 
stances, together Avith my conviction that much good can be 
done, andj consequently, by omission, much evil, and the im- 
portance of the chair to which I have been called, make me 
contemplate, at limes, my new situation with solicitude. Yet 
I take courage in the hope that Heaven will not withhold its 
blessing from my sincere desire to do the best I can, and my 
firm determination studiously io weigh and examine the sugges- 
tions which the wisdom of others or my own experience may 
make. 

That you, gentlemen, be the better enabled to judge how far 
the course I intend to pursue, may answer your expectations, I 
shall state a few of my views respecting those sciences, which 
your board of Trustees has called me to teach in the College — 
History and Political Economy. With regard to education in 
general, I may be permitted to refer to a work where I have 
had occasion to develop my ideas at large ; I mean my Consti- 
tution and Plan of Education for Girard College.* I have not 
found any reason to change what I have given there, as the re- 
suit of my experience and meditation, nor does the different 
character of our College and the projected one in Philadelphia 

* Published in Philadelphia, 1834, ~" 



affect the general and fundamental principles of education. 

Of whatever kind the specific character of an institution 
for education may be, or in whatever branch a teacher may 
have to instruct, the great object of education must always 
remain the cuUivation of the heart and the head, or, in other 
words, a moral and intellectual cuUivation. The latter, or 
scientific education, ought again to consist of training and 
storing the mind — of storing it with sound knowledge and of 
training it in the habit of correct thought. It is at least as 
important that the student learn to study — to examine, inquire 
and conclude, that he contract scientific habits, and that a 
genuine, warming, cheering, animating love of knowledge be 
kindled within his soul, so that he may enter life as a being, 
longing for truth and capable of independent thought ; as it is 
that he should take with him, from the College, a store of use- 
ful learning, which is to become the nucleus for every thing he 
may acquire, in future, by farther study or experience. 

And as the youth, intrusted to the College, ought finally to 
exchange it for the busy scenes of life, with a healthy, vigor- 
ous and practical mind, well provided, in a scientific way, for 
the immense variety of knowledge which will burst upon him, 
with all the dangers of eri'or, so ought the College to send him 
into the mazes and moral confusion of the world, aad into all 
the temptations which never fail to beset the pleasant or the 
weary ways of the wanderer through life, healthful and strong in 
religion — that religion, which is truth, real life and real strength. 

In this respect, too, the student ought not only to receive in 
our institution a store of religious knowledge, but his soul ought 
to have been trained in morals and religion, partly by the ex- 
ample of his teachers, partly by the friendly intercourse and 
incidental but constant advice and inciting instruction, which is 
possible by this intercourse only. There are few more pre- 
cious gifts an institution like our College can bestow upon the 
youth reared within its walls, than the grateful remembrance 
of a teacher's friendship. I ask you, with whom experience 
has already proved the truth, whether it be not a gift which 
remains a rich treasuie to the latest hour of our life, though all 
the scenes around us may have changed, and which we bless 
with gratitude whenever we reflect upon our pilgrimage. 

If friendship and the relations of kindness and confidence 



have rendered the heart susceptible, the moral advice as well 
as the scientific instruction of the teacher will sink into it as 
the grain sinks into carefully tilled ground, and germinates and 
brings fruit by itself. But they remain matter of memory only, 
cold, lifeless words, as if written on a tablet from which every 
accident may blot them, if kindness does not give them and 
affection does not receive them. Or they may be like words 
chisselled in marble — they may be deeply engraven, but the 
marble feels them not, and time erases them. Let the student 
leave the College with the examples of virtue as vivid images 
before his eye, that they may be ever ready to his mind in the 
sad days of trial ; not like images, whose beauty, peradventure, 
he admires, though they have no effect upon his action, but 
like the familiar traits of beloved friends, whose memory he is 
ashamed to offend by unworthy acts. Let him before all, per- 
ceive and his soul be penetrated with the truth, that he stands 
such as he is, not as he appears to mortal eye, before his maker, 
who knows his very essence, without cloak or coloring, who 
looks into what we are, and weighs not what we profess ; and 
who can only be served by the fervor of a pure heart and an 
honest mind, not by appearance, words or violence, not by ha- 
tred, or dissembling or persecution ; who will not ask, to what 
class or set of men we have belonged, or undei what name we 
have shielded ourselves, but before v/hom each shall have to 
answer for what each has done himself. " Single is each man 
born ; single he dieth ; single he receiveth the reward of his 
good, and single the punishment of his evil deeds." Thus said 
an Eastern sage* a thousand years before the common era. 

This important end, the moral cultivation of the student, it 
is in the power of every science taught in the College, to 
promote ; mathematics, the natural sciences, philology by no 
means excepted ; but to the province of none it belongs so 
peculiarly, as to the science which you have assigned to me, 
constantly to direct the mind of the student to the best and su- 
rest principles upon which human society is founded or for 
which nations have contended, to the conspicuous examples 
of virtue or vice, to the safe operation of wise laws pr the 
detrimental course which cunning or fell ambition, short- 
sighted cowardice, and careless or intentional disregard of right 

*Menu, the Hindu legislator. See the Ordinances of Menu in vol. iii. of the 
works of Sir William Jones, London, 1799, chap. iv. 240, or page 194. 



and duty always take with individuals as well a§ with whole 
communities and nations. 

History, in an ethical point of view, may be considered as 
practical morals, and in this respect it is of peculiar impor- 
tance in the course of instruction pursued with the sons of re- 
publicans, who, at some future period, have themselves to guide 
the State, when no external force, no power above them, 
no consideration of interest foreign to the well-being of their 
own body politic, shall prescribe to them the course they have 
to steer ; when the only compass they have to sail by, shall 
be their zealous ardor, their correct knowledge of duty, 
and their conscientious love of justice and liberty — I might sny 
or liberty, for justice and liberty are in many respects synony- 
mous. Then, when their genuine love of country alone shall in. 
, fluence their conduct as the makers, executors and defenders 
of the laws and institutions of their society, — in short, when they 
enter into political or any other i>ractical life, it is a matter of 
moment indeed, whether the examples of stern duty and "te. 
nacious perseverance,"* of wise societies, that have made their 
laws on the principles of right and truth, and have considered 
it a noble privilege of freemen to yield steady obedience to 
good laws — whether or not all the experience treasured up in 
history is before their feyes and induces them to prefer lasting 
fame, or essential good bestowed upon their country even with- 
out acknowledgement, to the ever changeable impulse of the 
moment. 

The abstract is brought home to the human understanding 
by instances. We see this in the explanation of any general 
principle, in daily life, we see it with children, in sciences, in 
philosophy, in law and even in mathematics ; we see it in the 
debates on the floor of legislative halls — in short, we find eve- 
ry where that, though there is in man a constant tendency to 
abstract and generalize, which forms the greater part of all 
thinking, there is likewise a constant necessity to individual- 
ize, and to bring home again to others and ourselves by in- 
dividual cases, that which we have gained by the process of 
generalizing ratiocination. This is also the case with regard 
to religion and morals, to the principles of liberty and political 
ethics ; and it is no mean prerogative of the science of histo- 
B * Vir propositi tenax. 



10 

ry, that she is able to exhibit patriotism, wisdom, rectitudo 
and the most important principles which concern the well- 
being of man, or the opposite of these virtues and principles, 
embodied, made solid, cast in encouraging or warning exam- 
ples, which the life of individuals or the fate of entire commu- 
nities afford. 

Another and a great benefit to be derived from a profound 
study of history or the correct teaching of its results — I do 
not speak of the superficial perusal of partial representations 
— is that this science makes us liberal in judging of past pe- 
riods and foreign countries, as it makes us modest with regard 
to our own times, and cautious towards those who appear 
before the public, vaunting their nev/ systems or discoveries 
of new principles, as if mankind had been destined to live on in 
ignorance and barbarity, until they at length made their ap- 
pearance with all the requisite means for the foundation of 
man's happiness, so that human felicity will have to date from 
their birth or the publication of some of their works. Thero 
is an expanding power in the study of history, as well as one 
which gives acuteness and penetration. 

On the other hand it is history again which enables us just- 
ly to appreciate the conquests which our own age may have 
made in the cause of civilization, and to separate the essential 
from the accidental, so that we may with greater firmness pro- 
tect and defend its growth and expansion. 

The study of history has a similar though more powerful 
effect, with that derived from extensive travelling. We travel 
back into former periods, and compare them to the present 
times. There we shall often find better things than we are 
possessed of; sometimes we shall see that things which look- 
ed so proud and noble at a distance, are inferior to what we 
have, though it may be less glittering or attractive to the un- 
experienced. Judicious travelling and impartial study of histo- 
ry make us just towards others and ourselves. History teach- 
es us that mankind are not of to day, that it was the will of 
the creator, that mankind should form a society — that human 
society should form one contiguous whole ; one member, one 
period, one age of which always necessarily influences the 
next. Man is essentially a social being, in a moral sense 
much more so still, than in a physical ; and society, again, 



11 

is essentially what i^ is, by its intimate connectioa with all 
previous ages. Who art thou, son of to-day ? And where 
wouldst thou be, had not Columbus discovered, had not Portu- 
gal pressed on, had not Ptolomy erred, had not the Chaldeans 
observed the stars ? What would be thy liberty, had not the 
signers been of British descent and yet familiar with ideas 
matured by the European coiitinent; had not thy fathers de- 
throned the Stuarts, had not the barons extorted the charter, 
had not the Germanic tribes revived decaying Europe? What 
would be thy science and civilization, had not the Middle 
Ages struggled and speculated ; the Arabians not collected, 
preserved and kindled ; Home not received, ripened, conquered 
and civilized; Etruria not pioneered and prepared; had 
Greece not refined and discriminated, colonized and traded,* 
fought, sung, built, recorded and meditated ; had Egypt not 
organized, invented and husbandedf; India not contemplated? 
Without a mother there is no son, and v/ithout a previous 
generation there is no present one. And were man bent on 
destroying the vessel which carried civilization from the past 
period to the one he lives in, it vv'ould be in vain — in vain and 
mad as it was when the French Convention decreed that all 
the documents in the archives should be burnt and all the seals 
should be broken in order to annihilate the histor}' of their 
country. Man cannot travel out of his time, as surely not as 

*" No nation of the ancient world has sent out so many colonies, as the 
Greeks ; and these colonies have become so important in a variety of res- 
pects, that it is impossible to obtain a just view of the early periods of Univer- 
sal History, without a proper knowledge of them. For with them is not only 
closely connected : a. the history of civilization of their mother country; but 
also 6. the history of the early Universal Commerce; and c. some of these col- 
onies became so powerful, that they exercised the most decided influence up- 
on Pohtical History." Text Book of the History of the States of Antiquity, 
with particular Reference to their Constitutions, Commerce and Colonies, by 
A. H. L. Heeron, page 197. The expression Universal Commerce, (Welt- 
handel) is used by the Germans to designate that commerce, which extends 
to aU or most of the nations, known at the time, which consists of the great 
exchange of goods among the different and distant members of the human 
famUy, and is, therefore, always of paramount importance to the historian. 
Thus they would say : England and America are at present almost entirely 
in possession of the Welthandel. 

t"Refutation of the idea, as if the Egyptian priests had been in possession 
of great speculative knowledge; whilst their science had, chiefly, reference 
to practical life, and thus became, in their hands, the instrumenta domhia- 
tiotiis over the great mass, by which they made themselves indispensable, 
and kept the people in dependance. — Explanations of the close relation be- 
tween their deities, their astronomic and mathematical luiowledge on the one 
hand and agriculture on the other." Ibid, page 75. Subsequent and exten- 
sive inquiries into the antiquities of Egypt by the ChampoUions, Belzoni and 
others have proved how high a degree of perfection the mechanical arts and 
agriculture had obtained -with that early nation, and how much we owe tbefli= 



12 

he cannot help being the child of his progenitor ; ho must 
build with the materials which his forefathers left him. He 
may and even must develop, add, improve and change, but 
foolish temerity only could dare to say: " I will begin anew." 
God has not made a people which shall date its civilization 
from a given day, but he created a species, which was grad- 
ually to develop itself. 

Even principles of the most universal character receive, ac- 
cording to this decree, a different developement with ditferent 
nations and in different periods ; and as the simple truths of the 
gospel were and are embodied in different churches and differ- 
ent systems of theology in Greece, Italy, Germany, England, 
France and with ourselves, so has the inextinguishable desire 
for liberty existed wherever human breast has heaved ; yet 
British liberty differs and must for ever differ from ours, and 
both will differ from Fi-ench liberty, whenever firmly esta- 
blished; as modern liberty differs, and cannot otherwise but dif- 
fer, from the liberty of the middle ages, and ancient ireedom. 

I trust, I am too well known to you, gentlemen, that I should 
be obliged to guard against a misunderstanding, as if I belong- 
ed either to the so called " historical school", which consid- 
ers every thing, which has been handed down through genera- 
tions, as lawful, good, wise and not to be touched ; perhaps not 
even to be judged and freely examined, merely because it has 
been handed down : or to that political sect, which misapplies 
what I remarked above with regard to the necessary modifi- 
cations of principles, and maintains that no entirely new insti- 
tuiion, differing in character from the previous ones in a cer- 
tain society, ought to be established, or any new principle 
to be adopted from others. I am equally far from either. All 
I wished to convey, is, that even if we adopt new principles 
and found new institutions, they again will attach themselves 
to our previous ones according to the elements of which our 
society consists, that there is no absolute re-beginning in his- 
tory possible, and that the knowledge of this fact will make 
us cautious, in the same degree as a thorough acquaintance 
with history will make us bold, where boldness is required in 
order to change or even to destroy. However,! will not anti- 
cipate a subject on which I shall have to offer a few more re. 
marks. 



One great lesson of practical importance, learned from his- 
tory by the simplest induction, is, that as we now look upon 
by.gone parties, once arrayed against each other in fearful 
contest, and as we adjudge to each some wrong, or, as we 
judge of the one far milder than their contemporary adversa- 
ries did, so shall posterity look upon our strifes and conflicts. 
Let us then learn one of the greatest acts of Avisdom, to anti- 
cipate the judgement of time, and divest ourselves of partial 
and party views, and assume a loftier station from which we 
may contemplate our friends as well as our opponents with 
greater justice. It is difficult and yet necessaiy for the true 
valuation of events and actions, passing before our own eyes, 
that we should extricate ourselves from all the personal effects 
"which they may produce upon us, should reduce the apparent 
magnitude with which objects, close before us, appear com- 
pared to distant, though in reality much larger objects, and 
should see them in their natural connection with the many 
others which surround them, as if seen from a distant eleva- 
tion. This we learn best by studying history ; it is this his. 
torical bird's eye view which constitutes one of the choicest 
acquisitions, to be obtained in no other way. Our mind be- 
comes gradually accustomed to see the various subjects, stri- 
king, dazzling or perplexing at their time, as if they were of 
greater importance than any thing that ever -had appeared 
before on the horizon of history, in their true light and bearing, 
and thus skilled — for a skill it is — we find it easier to judge 
correctly of present things. He is a wise man who can 
reflect on present things as calmly as if they had been re- 
corded long ago on the pages of history, and who can weigh 
matters of history with an earnestness and energy, and all 
the penetrating power of lively interest, as if they were events 
of his own times ; he is a wise statesman who has learned to 
use his personal experience as a clew to decipher history, 
and who can use history as a clew to decipher the often mys- 
terious pages of his own age. 

I am no advocate of theories which cannot possibly be 
realized, or which, if put info practice, would injure the best 
side most. It was, therefore, not my intention to indicate by 
my remarks, that it would be truly wise always to look upon 
two contending parties in our own times, with indifference, 



14 

persuaded that both are partly right and partly wrong. 1 
know full well that in order to obtain great objects, we are 
obliged to unite the power of many, and that, in order to ob- 
tain this, compromise with regard to minor objects is requi- 
site ; in short, that frequently the action by party cannot be 
dispensed with ; and, also, that history has recorded contests 
in which no peace was possible befoi'e one of the conflicting 
parties was annihilated. There was in Italy no rest and 
quiet possible as long as there existed Guelphs and Ghibelli- 
nes ; and the time is drawing near, when, in Europe, one or 
the other of the two great cont'?nding parties must be anni- 
hilated. For history teaches us, that, however salutary the 
check of different parties upon each other may be, and how- 
ever noble a feature of the British annals it is, that in them 
we find the first developement of a regular and lawful opposi- 
tion ;* yet as soon as two parties, both provided with intel- 
iectual and physical means, cease to agree even on their first 
and original starting point, as soon as they radically disagree, 
then the period of that misunderstanding begins, which thwarts 
every good purpose, disjoints every link, in which distrust 
changes the very language, made to be the tie of man, into 
a means of confusion and ill-will, and the chasm between the 
two is increased by every uttered word : until at length the 
contest of annihilation cannot be any longer avoided — the 
period of labor before the birth of a new era. What, how. 
ever, shall enable us to make this momentous distinction ? 
How are we to ascertain whether the contest be really on 
primary and fundamental points, or whether our own excite- 
ment only paints to us the struggle in so glaring colors ? 
Nothing on earth but the experience, which the mind gathers 
in wandering through history. 

If the study of this science has enabled the student to judge 
more calmly of the contest he is himself engaged in, he will 
be the firmer, the more decided and persevering, the clearer 
he has perceived that the existing struggle is one which 
will be found important in the cause of mankind even before 
the tribunal of posterity. 

* I have given my views on this important subject of modern history, more 
at length in m.y : Stranger in America, pages 39 and seq. London edit. ; pages 
31 and seq. Philadelphia edition. 



15 

This with regard to events; as to theories, how many 
apparently new ones, in science, religion and politics, are 
stripped of all' their charm of novelty and the exciting power 
they exercise upon the vanity of man, as soon as they are 
known to have attracted and excited in the same degree, cen- 
turies ago ! And to how many apparently insignificant facts 
is not at once the attention of him directed who is able to 
discern that their characteristics present entirely new fea- 
tures ! 

But are we able to rely on history ? Does not our daily 
experience of the many obstacles in the way of arriving at 
truth even of facts which have happened within the narrow- 
est circle around us, within our own family, shake all con. 
fidence in history ? Ought we not rather to follow those who 
break through the difficulty by the pretence that they believe 
nothing, or, at least rely on nothing, except on what they 
have perceived by their own senses ? May we not in particu- 
cular feel disposed to distrust all history as a suspicious 
witness, when in our own times a great historian has thrown 
at least a very serious doubt over a whole portion of the 
annals of mankind, received without suspicion by the succes- 
sive generations of many thousand years? Does not history 
lose on this account her claims to the title of a science ? Is 
it not true, what one of the shrewdest observers, that ever 
recorded the events of their own times, Cardinal Retz, says 
in his Memoirs, that " all we read in the lives of most men is 
false ?"* Ought we not to disown history as Raleigh burnt his 
manuscript ? 

History, or that which we find recorded and the consequent 
opinion of posterity — may err.f No doubt can exist as to this 

* Cardinal Retz gives, in vol. 1 of his Memoirs, an interesting account of a 
drive he took with Marshal Turenne, when both of them mistook a distant 
procession of friars for an apparition of ghosts. Both started to meet them ; 
Turenne so calm and grave that Cardinal Retz said the next day, he would 
have sworn that Turenne had been afraid, though the latter assured him, that 
not only had he not been afraid, but his first sensation had been that of joy, 
because he had always longed to see ghosts ; and farther, that he would have 
sworn that Cardinal Retz had not had the sUghtest fear, on the contrary that 
he had likewise been glad to meet with this apparition, while Retz candidly 
confessed that he had been really afraid, but put on the semblance of alacrity 
merely from shame. He then makes the above reflection, with several acute 
remarks. 

t To be distinct, I will give my definition of history : History is a sci- 
entific account of the authenticated and remarkable facts which have influ- 
enced the social state of man or bear testimony of its state at a given period. 
The word fact is taken here in the widest sense which can be given to it accord- 



16 

point. I do believe that posterity may be belied. Pretended 
facts may be so plausibly represented, and they may be of so 
peculiar a character, that contradiction becomes impossible, 
and posterity receive them as truth. Merit or guilt may be 
undeservedly assigned. We never gain by deceiving ourselves, 
and it is as little true that history always awards the true 
share to every agent in an important transaction, as it if in 
common morals true that every criminal will meet, at length, 
with his due, by the arm of human justice, the frequent repe- 
tition of this assertion, even in the form of proverbs, notwith- 
standing. But though it be a most noble task of history to 
constitute the supreme tribunal of which posteiity forms the 
jury, and though it may succeed in many and important cases 
in ferreting out the precise truth ; yet this is not her highest task. 
Her most elevated problem is to find out the moral causes of 
the great events which influence the fate of the human species, 
and to I'epresent them according to their internal and necessa- 
ry connection. Well may be applied to her in this respect, 
the inscription over the anatomical theatre at Havana : 
Plus quam vita loquax mors taciturna docet* 
As we are abler to judge of the features of an extensive 
plain, when we are at a distance and on an elevation, so we are 
more capable of determining the character of a whole period 
at a distance from it, if we have previously endeavored to as- 
certain by minute study the accurate state of many of its com- 
ponent parts. Individuals and single events must be known, 
yet the higher object of history is to study institutions, and 
the masses, of which the individuals, however distinguished 
and in whatever eminent a degree they may appear at the 
time as the leaders, form but a part. They think they lead, 
but they are led.f Without this, the inquiry into the institu- 

ing to its etymology, including single acts, events and institutions. Tliat the 
account be scientific, requires that the facts be presented in their proper order, 
according to their true and essential connection with each other ; so that a his- 
torical relation is a picture, not an enumeration. The same definition apphes 
to any special history, with the exception only that we have to place the special 
society, science, art or institution under consideration, instead of " social state 
of man." 

*This inscription was at least to be placed there, according to the Diario de la 
Habana JSov. 20, 1834. The whole is this : 

Naturse Ingenium Dissecta Cadavera Pandunt : 
Plus Quam Vita Loquax Mors Taciturna Docet. 
t Der game S^rudel streht nach oben ; 
Du glazibst zu schieben und du wirst geschohen. 

(Mephist. in the Walpurgisn. in Faust.) 



17 

tions, and the causes which moved the masses, history is but 
party history, Uttle more than a chronicle of party events. 

Whether Casca really gave the first blow to Caesar on the 
fatal Ides of March,* may never be ascertained with undis- 
putable certainty ; but it will for ever be a matter of history 
beyond a doubt, that a great man of the name of Julius Cse- 
sar lived toward the beginning of the vulgar era. Whether 
this great man was animated by noble designs, after having ar- 
rived at the fullest conviction that Rome could not possibly con- 
tinue to exist with her ancient republican form of government, 
and that her whole polity required a thorough change, or whe- 
ther he followed mainly the impulse of selfish ambition, when 
he defied the established law of his country, and crossed the 
Rubicon — in other words, the internal history of that extraordi- 
nary man, may remain for ever an unsettled question; but it will, 
nevertheless, remain a matter of historical certainty, that this 
individual was an instrument to fulfill the great destiny of Rome, 
to conquer uncivilized countries, and to engraft Roman insti- 
tions upon theirs, to carry, over Western Europe, the seeds of 
-Roman civilization, after it had matured within the narrower 
limits of Italy. Or are we to believe, with Hardouin, that all 
the Greek and Roman historians are the spurious productions 
of inventive monks ? 

Whether Galilei was or was not tortured, or threatened 
with the rack, when he stood before the tribunal of the 
inquisition, may be a question never to be decided on positive 
and satisfactor}) evidence;^ but it is, nevertheless, a well founded 
and proven fact in the history of human thought, that we be. 
hold in the case of Galilei another instance of the labors and 

[The whole whirhng mass strives upwards ; 
Thou behevest thou pushest, but thou art pushed.] 

These well known words of Goethe find no readier application any where 
than in history, as so many other wise sayings put by that great poet in the 
mouth of the arch-fiend. 

* Plutarch, Life of Julius Csesar. 

t Some individuals have at least strong suspicions that Galilei was tortured ; 
see for instance Mr. Niebuhr's opinion in my Reminiscences of Mr. Niebuhr, 
page 201 London edition, page 200 Philadelphia edition : others disbelieve it. 
I incline to the latter, not because I consider his persecutors incapable of such 
an act ; for we know that the torture was at that time, on the European Con- 
tinent, considered a lawful means of eliciting truth, and we know too that the 
tribunals which judged of men's opinions, made a most liberal use of this con- 
venient instrument. My view of the case is founded upon the fact that GaU- 
lei had many powerful frietids, and that he was, while at Rome, during his 
persecution, in a degree under the protection of Florence. Still, it is quite 
possible. 

C 



18 

struggles, unavoidable when mankind sever themselves from 
any system or institution, which has exerted an extensive and 
penetrating influence, and the gates of a new era are forced 
open ; that mankind will, for ever, be divided into two great 
parties, the one zealous to maintain ihat which is established,, 
the other anxious to shake off the fetters of authority, and mo- 
ving on, conscious of the independence of the human intellect;, 
that Aristotle, the master of thought, after having strongly af- 
fected those distant and entirely foreign children of the East,, 
even when their religious phrenzy swept every thing before 
them, had ruled the mind of man for many centuries, though 
misconstrued, misjudged and misapplied, and had thus firmly 
fastened on the human mind, that men of so powerful intellect 
and such greatness of soul, as the sage of Pisa, were requisite, 
to wrestle the great charter of free inquiry from the clinching 
hands of dogma and dictation ; and that those who have not 
been endowed with the capacity of enjoying the sublime plea- 
sure of searching and finding truth, will ever be prompted b}/ 
envy and fear for their authority or interest, to stigmatize the 
faithful priests of truth, and to use that power, which the bulk 
of ignorance always places at their disposal, to overwhelm and 
crush the first and single fighting heroes of a great cause» 

History is, like all other sciences, but a human science, and, 
therefore, subject to error ; but is astronomy not any longer a 
science, because Sir John Herschel informs us from the Cape 
of Good Hope, that the comet he has observed with his power- 
ful instrument, moves in a different orbit from the path calcu- 
lated by the astronomers according to the theory of the immor- 
tal Gauss, and which had been found correct in all previous in- 
stances ? 

The task of the historian is always an arduous and solemn 
one, whether he act as the conscientious recorder of truth, as 
Herodotus seems to have felt the whole dignity of his vocation. 
Alter having stated the names of several individuals, who had 
been mentioned at his time as having done the treacherous deed 
of guiding the Persians over the mountains, by which Leoni- 
das and his brave band were surrounded and slain, he solemnly 
continues : " But Epialtes has been the man who guided them 
on the path over the mountains, and him I write down as the 
wicked one."* Or as Gibbon must have felt it, when musing 

* Herodotus, vii. (Polymnia) 214. 



19 

amidst the ruins of the Campo Vaccine, and the muse of his- 
tory inspired him with the great idea of writing the downfall of 
the mightiest empire. 

Or whether the historian pursue the path of truth, ready to 
sacrifice long cherished opinions or endeared delusions, and to 
receive the sneers of his contemporaries as the reward of his 
toilsome labor, neither bent upon an ingenious defence of a 
theory which flatters his vanity, nor fearful of encountering 
powerful opposition, as Niebuhr did, when he blotted out many 
chapters of history, remembered by all of us with fondness. 

Or whether he serve the sacred science by teaching it to the 
youth; when he shows them how one society, institution, or 
system, how one age and century, how one race grew out of the 
preceding one and trod over its grave; how and why one state 
of things began, grew and rose to eminence, and why it sunk, 
decayed and fell. 

I know of but few stations more dignified than that of a 
public teacher of history ; scarcely of one more elevated than 
that of a teacher appointed by a republic to instruct her chil- 
dren in civil history. For if history is a science important to 
every one, it is peculiarly so to republicans — to members of a 
community which essentially depends upon institutions. If they 
have to defend them against open attacks or plausible heresies, 
they must know them, must be well acquainted with their essen- 
tial character, as well as with the insinuating plausibility and 
the ruinous consequences with which those undermining here- 
sies have been advanced with other nations and in distant ages. 
History is the memory of nations; oh ! how many have been 
lost for want of this memory, and on account of careless, guilty 
ignorance ! 

If they have to develop and improve their institutions ; if 
they have to adapt them to the gradual changes of time, which 
is as necessary as unbending resistance against encroachments 
made upon others, it is equally necessary for the citizen to 
know them ; and an institution is not known by its name, or 
charter, but by its operation, its history. If they have to watch 
over the dearest interests of man, perhaps in a small minority 
against a broad current of popular delusion, they ought to have 
the examples of men before their eyes, who preferred to fall in 
a righteous cause rather than to be borne along on the swelling 



20 

tide of enticing popularity. If they are expected to be con- 
sistent, and if no citizen can be consistent through life, who has 
not buckled on the armor of fortitude, then their souls ought 
early to be prepared for that civil buoyancy, which bears up 
against all painful disappointments, and commands over new 
means and resources after each loss. And what can prepare us 
for this manly cheerfulness 1 Nothing but elevated views and 
devotion to principle. What, however, gives us this enlargement 
of the soul ? Our knowledge of the gradual progress of man. 

If ambition or the power of emulation is one of the primary and 
most active agents in the whole moral creation, which God has 
planted in the heart of man as one of his noblest attributes, 
and if no society can be so low, so abject, so foul as when this 
moral element is extinguished in the bosom of its members, 
then they ought to learn in their early youth, by striking ex- 
amples, how necessary and how dangerous an agent it is, how 
it has stimulated great men to overcome the most disheart- 
ening obstacles, and how it has ruined men whom nature 
seemed to have formed as a boast of her powers ; that ambi- 
tion, as all other elementary agents in the moral or phj^sical 
world, as fire and water, brings us thousandfold blessings, if 
watched and guided, but woe and misery, if, a maddened ele- 
ment, it breaks down the dykes and mounds of law and reason, 
and rushes over fertile fields and plains, cultivated by the care 
of generations, to leave behind it the blast of sterile sand which 
chokes the tenderest vegetation, and stints and cripples all 
vigor, joy and life of nature. 

If the power of building up or destroying rest in its plenitude 
with the people, then they ought to learn, when young, the 
principles which must direct their actions, and the modifica- 
tions which these principles have to undergo if applied. If 
those who now are under the care and guidance of this insti- 
tution founded by the state, have in turn to guide her helm, then 
they ought to know how to navigate the vessel of the state 
between the cliffs and dangers of politics ; they ought to know 
where others, w^ho sailed before them, have been wrecked, and 
they ought to learn in time to distinguish an approaching pirate 
by his suspicious movements, and not to be beguiled by friendly 
colors, until it is too late to resist the fiend. And let us not 



forget tliat the sea of politics is nowhere an open, easy main, 
on which only common skill in navigation is required ; except 
perhaps in some cases, where the vast waters of absolute 
power roll their monotonous waves. The politics of liberty 
require watchful helmsmen, wise pilots, who have taken out 
their license in the school of experience, and history must lay 
down the chart by which they have to weather the dangerous 
points and breakers. 

If they shall love liberty they ought to know how precious a 
good it is ; how powerfully she has inspired men of all nations 
and all ages, even so powerfully that some of them have been 
willing to toil in repelling those attacks, which are not record, 
ed, because they were repelled. It is easy to die for our coun- 
try, but it is difficult to live a laborious life for her when the 
victory becomes hardly known. 

To prepare youths for these, the greatest exertions of a citi- 
zen, it is necessary to exalt their souls by the views which his- 
tory alone can open to them, and to show them how sacred 
those interests are which require these exertions. If the pu- 
rest patriotism shall be kindled in their bosoms, let them see that 
the principles which they maintain are eternal, and that the 
Qountry for which they live is not an accidental mass of men, 
made up but to-day, but that they are integrant parts of a so- 
ciety, for which others, long passed by, have lived as they are 
expected to live; If they are to be put on their guard against 
that enthusiasm, which evaporates with the first bitter experi. 
ence, it is equally necessary to imbue them with sound know- 
ledge of their country and of mankind in general, that they 
may be safe against the maddening enticements of brilliant 
phantoms. 

Two things seem to me of equal importance to a good citi- 
zen ; if the one or the other be wanting no safety can exist 
for a free state, and liberty is at most but a happy accident — I 
mean cheerful devotion and jealous distrust. Where the for. 
mer is wanting, where the state is founded upon mere negative 
principles, where the "constitution is nothing but an act of 
distrust for the future security of a people,"* as it was lately 
proclaimed from the French tribune, society is essentially dis- 
solved, and must hasten to a speedy end, or drag on the unpro- 

*Thouvenel in the session of the French Chamber in 1831, 



22 

ductive life of anarchy. Where the latter, distrust, is want- 
ing, the people will soon be enslaved. Many nations have 
fallen under the hands of tyranny, from gratitude ! The words 
of one of the greatest defenders of liberty, that ever spoke to 
that people, " with whom liberty had been a passion, an in- 
stinct,"* should for ever be remembered by all citizens of a free 
country. Demosthenes said to his Greeks, when, indeed, con- 
ceited selfsufficiency and excess of hberty or rather lawless. 
nessf had made them unworthy of that liberty, which was the 
breath of his life : " Many things have been invented to pro- 
tect and defend cities, such as ramparts, walls, fosses and other 
things of the kind ; and all these things are made by the hands 
of men and require exertion ; but the nature of wise men con- 
tains in itself a common protection, useful and salutary to all, 
but especially so to the people against tyranny. And what is 
this? Distrust. This pi'eserve ; in this confide. As long as 
you retain this, no evil will befal you.":]: So far Demosthenes. 
It is these two elements of sound and true patriotism with 
which it shall be my endeavor to imbue the scholars, in leading 
them through the successive periods of history, and thus to 
assist in preparing them for the weighty and responsible du- 
ties which every one of them will have to fulfil at some future 
period, as citizens of a free republic ; it is according to these 
views, which 1 have had the honor briefly to exhibit to you, 
that I shall try to teach the science, and to teach how to study 
it ; and according to which it is my anxious desire to establish 
the necessary relation between the scholars and myself. I wish 
to be considered by them as their friend. Sincere as I know 
these wishes to be, and if I am not quite an unworthy son of 
that nation to which the palm of patient and extensive investi- 
gation, and comprehensive views in history has been awarded,§ 

* Westminster Review, No. xxxii. 

t Plato de Rep. viii. 14. p. 562. b., translated by Cicero de Rep. i. 43 : Quum 
enim inexplebiles populi fauces exaruerunt libertatis siti, malisque usus ille min- 
istris, non modice temperatam, sed nimis meracem libertatem sitiens hauserit- 
&c. 

And ibid. c. 15. p. 562 E. Cicero c. 44. nam ut ex nimia potentia principum or- 
itur interitus principum, sic hunc nimis liberum populum libertas ipsa servitute 
adficit. Sic omnia nimia — in contraria fere convertunt, maximeque in rebua 
publicis evenit ; nimiaque ilia libertas et populis et privatis in nimiam servitutem 
cedit. 

t Second Phnipp. p. 71. 1^—23. 

<^ In the Introduction to the British and Foreign Review, or European Quar- 
terly Journal, lately established, it is said, on page 7 : 



23 

(I use the words of an English writer) may I not hope that my 
labors may not remain without some good effect ? 

Givil history, the main subject of instruction in history in the 
college, will necessai'ily lead to inquiries into the various sub- 
jects of politics. It is not only my intention to ti'eat of them 
while I am proceeding in history, but also to teach them, if 
time can be found, in separate lectures. On the other hand 1 
shall always endeavor to exhibit the whole state of civiliza- 
tion of a country or period under discussion, and try to give a 
rapid sketch of the literature, the state of sciences, the arts, 
its commerce and agriculture, which will lead to touch upon 
subjects more properly belonging to the other science for 
which you have appointed me. As I shall have frequent oc- 
casion to speak on the subject of politics, so will the introduc- 
tion of history often lead me to topics of political economy, 
and in the same way shall I make them the subject of sepai'ate 
instruction. 

Political Economy, treated as a scientific whole, is of com- 
paratively late origin, though various subjects, belonging to its 
province, have at different times been treated even in re- 
mote periods. There are still many persons, who "do not 
believe in political economy," and will of course not allow it 
the rank of a science, as a few years ago, when Werner 
broke a new path for mineralogy, many people, and most dis- 

"The muse of history has ever been considered as looking with a benignant 
eyeuponher own province in British literature. Nor would it be difficult to 
mention names which have shed glory upon their country, by the fidelity as 
well as elegance of their recitals ; and, by a peculiar felicity of arrangement of 
topics, have succeeded in keeping curiosity awake, during a protracted history 
01 ages, by no means abounding in attractive incidents and characters. But 
stiU in the patient and indefatigable search of truth, in pursuing her faintest 
traces through the labyrinth of error in which the imposture or credulity of 
ancient annalists have frequently involved her ; in the successful perseverance 
with which they disencumber the precious ore from the worthless mass in which 
it is concealed, and in reducing legends into genuine history, we must, at this 
day, yield the palm to Teutonic industry and zeal. Nor should we be justified 
in concluding that, because then* search ismmute, their views are short-sighted. 
They seem, indeed, to combine an extreme minuteness of observation, with a 
telescopic range of vision ; and to draw their conclusions with a soundness of 
judgment, which shows that they see objects, at last, in their natural colors, and 
true dimensions. If we may justly claim the distinction of having brought phi- 
losophy to the feet of history, to gather materials from which to construct her 
system, and to demolish those which had been reared on the basis of imagina- 
tion, modern Germany has the credit of having reversed the process, by pla- 
cing the instructress under the tuition of her pupil, and thus teaching history to 
test the probability and truth of her statements, by the canons of philosophy. 
Already have they shovni by the application of this new standard of credibihty, 
that many of the most familiar passages of ancient history are not merely im- 
probable, but impossible ; and instead of being the faithful records of fact*, are 
the fictions or amplifications of oral and popular tradition." 



24 

tinguished ones among them, smiled at the idea of calUng min- 
eralogy a science, or believing in the possibility of systemati- 
cally and scientifically treating what they called "the stones."* 
Nay, there are still persons who deny that geology be a sci- 
ence. Whether political economy be a science or not, 
it is not here the place to discuss, though it is difficult 
to see why the difierence of opinion and contradictory re- 
sults at which some, though few, political economists have 
arrived, should any more deprive their study of the character 
of a science, than natural philosophy, metaphysics, medicine or 
theology ; nor is it required that any one should believe in 
political economy. The simple question is whether the sub- 
jects it considers as peculiarly belonging to its forum, are sus- 
ceptible of scientific inquiry, and whether they are of sufficient 
importance to require investigations of this kind and to be 
taught in our college. 

I believe it is easy to show that the same relation, which 
physiology of the human body bears to anthropology and phi- 
losophy in general, subsists between political economy and the 
higher branches of politics — or, political economy has pre- 
cisely all the importance with regard to society, which the mate- 
rial life bears throughout to the moral and intellectual world. 
Political economy might be defined by being the science which 
occupies itself essentially with the material life of society — 
with pi'oduction, exchange and consumption ; and no one can 
possibly have thrown a single glance at these subjects, and deny 
that they stand in the most intimate connection with the moral 
and intellectual interests of a nation. 

If subjects of such universal influence and so extensively 
affecting the existence of human beings, as labor, wages, cap. 
ital, interests, commerce, loans, banks, &c. are not matter of 
sufficient interest for inquiry, then few things are ; if they do not 
depend upon general causes cognizable by the reason of man, 
then every thing around us is chance, and what is very striking, 
most regular chance, for it would be strange indeed that in 
the United States, for instance, many millions of people agree, 
without exchange of opinions, to pay throughout an- immense 
territory about seventy-five cents for a day's work of a com- 

* See among others some of the letters written by Herder to Goethe, who, it 
js well known, was an ardent mineralogist and geologist to the end of his life. 



f 1 



25 

inon laborer, and that in another immense country, at the north 
of Europe, many millions oi people receive for the same work 
a few kopecks only, with a uniformity which is perfectly per- 
plexing if the same general cause does not produce 'espec. 
tively this uniform effect. No believer in chance has ever 
dreamt that the regularity in form, process of growth and ripen, 
ing of a species of plant be the results of mere chance. 
Though he might believe that the first cause was chance, he 
would always allow that by the original mixture of atoms or 
elements, certain laws were produced according to which nature 
now effects ail the processes which strike us by their regularity; 
but in our own case, when we speak of human society, we 
shall at once change the test, and not believe that general, uni. 
form and regular efiects must depend upon fixed causes ! 

If these causes can be discovered, and what earthly reason 
is there that they should not? then it is the duty of man to discover 
them. Having found them, he will be able to subject them to 
the same processes of reasoning which he applies to every mass 
of homogeneous facts. Judicious combination and cautious in- 
duction will enable him to reason from them and conclude 
upon new results. If, however, these inquiries are of general 
interest and importance, they are certainly so to a citizen, who 
takes an active and direct part in the msAking of the laws 
which govern his own society, for they touch upon matters 
which most frequently become the subject of legislation. It is 
necessary then that the youths be instructed in this science. 

Political economy has not appeared under the most favorable 
train of circumstances. It is not its lot quietly to investigate 
a given subject, but it has to combat a series of systematized 
prejudices, which have extended their roots far and wide into 
all directions and deep into every class of society, for many 
centuries past- — prejudices which ai'e intimately connected with 
the interest of powerful classes. 

Strange, that man should have seriously to debate about free 
trade any more than about free breathing, free choice of color 
of dress, free sleeping, free cookery, and should be obliged to 
listen to arguments, which, if true, would also prove that 
the cutting, clipping and shaving of trees, fashionable in 
the times of Louis XIV, produced most noble, healthful oaks. 
Still, so ancient is the prejudice, that even Strabo mentions the 
D 



26 

fact that the Cumseans did net levy any duties on merchan- 
dize, imported into their harbor, as a proof of their enormous 
stupidity. The transition is not easy from so deep-rooted a pre- 
judice and whole systems of laws built upon it, to the natural, 
simple and uncorrupted state of things, in which man is allowed 
to apply his means as best he thinks, without fettering and 
cramping care from above, which is like the caresses of the 
animal in the fable — stifling. 

Two different directions of scientific inquiry seem to be cha- 
racteristic of our age — minute, extensive and bold inquiry into 
nature and her laws and life, and equalh bold and shrewd exam- 
ination of the elements and laws of human society, and all that 
is connec'ed with its physical or moral welfare. Hence we 
see at oncf the human mind following two apparently opposite 
directions with equal ardor — history and political economy. No 
age has pursued with so much zeal the collection of every rem- 
nant and vestige, which may contribute to disclose to us the 
real state of former generations ; and in no age have the princi- 
ples upon which the success of the human species depends, 
been investigated with less reserve. Your Board of Trustees 
has appointed me for these two important sciences, and I feel 
gratified thus to be placed in a situation, in which I am able to 
contribute largely to the diffusion of two sciences, which are 
cultivaied with such intense activity by the age in which my 
lot has been cafet. 








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